Contents

• Part I An introduction to OCaml
  • Chapter 1 The core language
    • 1 Basics
    • 2 Data types
    • 3 Functions as values
    • 4 Records and variants
      • 4.1 Record and variant disambiguation
    • 5 Imperative features
    • 6 Exceptions
    • 7 Lazy expressions
    • 8 Symbolic processing of expressions
    • 9 Pretty-printing
    • 10 Printf formats
    • 11 Standalone OCaml programs
  • Chapter 2 The module system
    • 1 Structures
    • 2 Signatures
    • 3 Functors
    • 4 Functors and type abstraction
    • 5 Modules and separate compilation
  • Chapter 3 Objects in OCaml
    • 1 Classes and objects
    • 2 Immediate objects
    • 3 Reference to self
    • 4 Initializers
    • 5 Virtual methods
    • 6 Private methods
    • 7 Class interfaces
    • 8 Inheritance
    • 9 Multiple inheritance
    • 10 Parameterized classes
    • 11 Polymorphic methods
    • 12 Using coercions
    • 13 Functional objects
    • 14 Cloning objects
    • 15 Recursive classes
    • 16 Binary methods
    • 17 Friends
  • Chapter 4 Labeled arguments
    • 1 Optional arguments
    • 2 Labels and type inference
    • 3 Suggestions for labeling
  • Chapter 5 Polymorphic variants
    • 1 Basic use
    • 2 Advanced use
    • 3 Weaknesses of polymorphic variants
  • Chapter 6 Polymorphism and its limitations
    • 1 Weak polymorphism and mutation
      • 1.1 Weakly polymorphic types
      • 1.2 The value restriction
      • 1.3 The relaxed value restriction
      • 1.4 Variance and value restriction
      • 1.5 Abstract data types
    • 2 Polymorphic recursion
      • 2.1 Explicitly polymorphic annotations
      • 2.2 More examples
    • 3 Higher-rank polymorphic functions
  • Chapter 7 Generalized algebraic datatypes
    • 1 Recursive functions
    • 2 Type inference
    • 3 Refutation cases
    • 4 Advanced examples
    • 5 Existential type names in error messages
    • 6 Explicit naming of existentials
    • 7 Equations on non-local abstract types
    • 8 Types used as GADT indices
      • 8.1 Legacy behavior: types in the current module
  • Chapter 8 Advanced examples with classes and modules
    • 1 Extended example: bank accounts
    • 2 Simple modules as classes
      • 2.1 Strings
      • 2.2 Hashtbl
      • 2.3 Sets
    • 3 The subject/observer pattern
  • Chapter 9 Parallel programming
    • 1 Domains
      • 1.1 Joining domains
    • 2 Domainslib: A library for nested-parallel programming
      • 2.1 Parallelising Fibonacci using domainslib
      • 2.2 Parallel iteration constructs
    • 3 Parallel garbage collection
    • 4 Memory model: The easy bits
    • 5 Blocking synchronisation
      • 5.1 Interaction with systhreads
    • 6 Interaction with C bindings
    • 7 Atomics
      • 7.1 Lock-free stack
      • 7.2 Atomic record fields
  • Chapter 10 Memory model: The hard bits
    • 1 Why weakly consistent memory?
      • 1.1 Compiler optimisations
      • 1.2 Hardware optimisations
    • 2 Data race freedom implies sequential consistency
      • 2.1 Memory locations
      • 2.2 Happens-before relation
      • 2.3 Data race
      • 2.4 DRF-SC
    • 3 Reasoning with DRF-SC
    • 4 Local data race freedom
    • 5 An operational view of the memory model
      • 5.1 Non-atomic locations
      • 5.2 Domains
      • 5.3 Non-atomic accesses
      • 5.4 Atomic accesses
      • 5.5 Reasoning with the semantics
    • 6 Non-compliant operations
• Part II The OCaml language
  • Chapter 11 The OCaml language
    • 1 Lexical conventions
    • 2 Values
      • 2.1 Base values
      • 2.2 Tuples
      • 2.3 Records
      • 2.4 Arrays
      • 2.5 Variant values
      • 2.6 Polymorphic variants
      • 2.7 Functions
      • 2.8 Objects
    • 3 Names
    • 4 Type expressions
    • 5 Constants
    • 6 Patterns
    • 7 Expressions
      • 7.1 Precedence and associativity
      • 7.2 Basic expressions
      • 7.3 Control structures
      • 7.4 Operations on data structures
      • 7.5 Operators
      • 7.6 Objects
      • 7.7 Coercions
      • 7.8 Local structure items
      • 7.9 Other
    • 8 Type and exception definitions
      • 8.1 Type definitions
      • 8.2 Exception definitions
    • 9 Classes
      • 9.1 Class types
      • 9.2 Class expressions
      • 9.3 Class definitions
      • 9.4 Class specifications
      • 9.5 Class type definitions
    • 10 Module types (module specifications)
      • 10.1 Simple module types
      • 10.2 Signatures
      • 10.3 Functor types
      • 10.4 The with operator
    • 11 Module expressions (module implementations)
      • 11.1 Simple module expressions
      • 11.2 Structures
      • 11.3 Functors
    • 12 Compilation units
  • Chapter 12 Language extensions
    • 1 Recursive definitions of values
    • 2 Recursive modules
    • 3 Private types
      • 3.1 Private variant and record types
      • 3.2 Private type abbreviations
      • 3.3 Private row types
    • 4 Locally abstract types
    • 5 Module-dependent functions and first-class modules
      • 5.1 Introduction
      • 5.2 Reference
    • 6 Recovering the type of a module
    • 7 Substituting inside a signature
      • 7.1 Destructive substitutions
      • 7.2 Local substitution declarations
      • 7.3 Module type substitutions
    • 8 Type-level module aliases
    • 9 Overriding in open statements
    • 10 Generalized algebraic datatypes
    • 11 Syntax for Bigarray access
    • 12 Attributes
      • 12.1 Built-in attributes
    • 13 Extension nodes
      • 13.1 Built-in extension nodes
    • 14 Extensible variant types
      • 14.1 Private extensible variant types
    • 15 Generative functors
    • 16 Extension-only syntax
      • 16.1 Extension operators
      • 16.2 Extension literals
    • 17 Inline records
    • 18 Documentation comments
      • 18.1 Floating comments
      • 18.2 Item comments
      • 18.3 Label comments
    • 19 Extended indexing operators
      • 19.1 Multi-index notation
    • 20 Empty variant types
    • 21 Alerts
      • 21.1 Marking a component
      • 21.2 Controlling which alerts are enabled
      • 21.3 Shorthand syntax for deprecation
    • 22 Generalized open statements
    • 23 Binding operators
      • 23.1 Examples
      • 23.2 Conventions
      • 23.3 General desugaring rules
      • 23.4 Short notation for variable bindings (let-punning)
    • 24 Effect handlers
      • 24.1 Basics
      • 24.2 Concurrency
      • 24.3 User-level threads
      • 24.4 Control inversion
      • 24.5 Semantics
      • 24.6 Shallow handlers
    • 25 Type-directed disambiguation of array literals
    • 26 Labeled tuples
    • 27 External types
• Part III The OCaml tools
  • Chapter 13 Batch compilation (ocamlc)
    • 1 Overview of the compiler
    • 2 Options
    • 3 Modules and the file system
    • 4 Common errors
    • 5 Warning reference
      • 5.1 Warning 6: Label omitted in function application
      • 5.2 Warning 9: missing fields in a record pattern
      • 5.3 Warning 52: fragile constant pattern
      • 5.4 Warning 57: Ambiguous or-pattern variables under guard
      • 5.5 Warning 74: Pattern matching degraded to partial.
  • Chapter 14 The toplevel system or REPL (ocaml)
    • 1 Options
    • 2 Toplevel directives
    • 3 The toplevel and the module system
    • 4 Common errors
    • 5 Building custom toplevel systems: ocamlmktop
      • 5.1 Options
    • 6 The native toplevel: ocamlnat (experimental)
  • Chapter 15 The runtime system (ocamlrun)
    • 1 Overview
    • 2 Options
    • 3 Dynamic loading of shared libraries
    • 4 Common errors
  • Chapter 16 Native-code compilation (ocamlopt)
    • 1 Overview of the compiler
    • 2 Options
    • 3 Common errors
    • 4 Running executables produced by ocamlopt
    • 5 Compatibility with the bytecode compiler
  • Chapter 17 Lexer and parser generators (ocamllex, ocamlyacc)
    • 1 Overview of ocamllex
      • 1.1 Options
    • 2 Syntax of lexer definitions
      • 2.1 Header and trailer
      • 2.2 Naming regular expressions
      • 2.3 Entry points
      • 2.4 Regular expressions
      • 2.5 Actions
      • 2.6 Variables in regular expressions
      • 2.7 Refill handlers
      • 2.8 Reserved identifiers
    • 3 Overview of ocamlyacc
    • 4 Syntax of grammar definitions
      • 4.1 Header and trailer
      • 4.2 Declarations
      • 4.3 Rules
      • 4.4 Error handling
    • 5 Options
    • 6 A complete example
    • 7 Common errors
  • Chapter 18 Dependency generator (ocamldep)
    • 1 Options
    • 2 A typical Makefile
  • Chapter 19 The documentation generator (ocamldoc)
    • 1 Usage
      • 1.1 Invocation
      • 1.2 Merging of module information
      • 1.3 Coding rules
    • 2 Syntax of documentation comments
      • 2.1 Placement of documentation comments
      • 2.2 The Stop special comment
      • 2.3 Syntax of documentation comments
      • 2.4 Text formatting
      • 2.5 Documentation tags (@-tags)
    • 3 Custom generators
      • 3.1 The generator modules
      • 3.2 Handling custom tags
    • 4 Adding command line options
      • 4.1 Compilation and usage
  • Chapter 20 The debugger (ocamldebug)
    • 1 Compiling for debugging
    • 2 Invocation
      • 2.1 Starting the debugger
      • 2.2 Initialization file
      • 2.3 Exiting the debugger
    • 3 Commands
      • 3.1 Getting help
      • 3.2 Accessing the debugger state
    • 4 Executing a program
      • 4.1 Events
      • 4.2 Starting the debugged program
      • 4.3 Running the program
      • 4.4 Time travel
      • 4.5 Killing the program
    • 5 Breakpoints
    • 6 The call stack
    • 7 Examining variable values
    • 8 Controlling the debugger
      • 8.1 Setting the program name and arguments
      • 8.2 How programs are loaded
      • 8.3 Search path for files
      • 8.4 Working directory
      • 8.5 Turning reverse execution on and off
      • 8.6 Behavior of the debugger with respect to fork
      • 8.7 Stopping execution when new code is loaded
      • 8.8 Communication between the debugger and the program
      • 8.9 Fine-tuning the debugger
      • 8.10 User-defined printers
    • 9 Miscellaneous commands
    • 10 Running the debugger under Emacs
  • Chapter 21 Native debugging (gdb, lldb)
    • 1 Overview
      • 1.1 DWARF
      • 1.2 Name Mangling
      • 1.3 Frame Pointers
    • 2 Compiling for Debugging
    • 3 Using GDB
      • 3.1 GDB Commands
    • 4 Using LLDB
      • 4.1 LLDB Commands
  • Chapter 22 Profiling (ocamlprof, perf)
    • 1 Profiling execution counts with ocamlprof
      • 1.1 Compiling for profiling
      • 1.2 Profiling an execution
      • 1.3 Printing profiling information
    • 2 Time profiling with Linux perf
      • 2.1 Background
      • 2.2 Compiling for Profiling
      • 2.3 Profiling an Execution
      • 2.4 Displaying profiling information
      • 2.5 Conclusion
    • 3 Time profiling with macOS Instruments
    • 4 Glossary
  • Chapter 23 Interfacing C with OCaml
    • 1 Overview and compilation information
      • 1.1 Declaring primitives
      • 1.2 Implementing primitives
      • 1.3 Statically linking C code with OCaml code
      • 1.4 Dynamically linking C code with OCaml code
      • 1.5 Choosing between static linking and dynamic linking
      • 1.6 Building standalone custom runtime systems
    • 2 The value type
      • 2.1 Integer values
      • 2.2 Blocks
      • 2.3 Pointers outside the heap
    • 3 Representation of OCaml data types
      • 3.1 Atomic types
      • 3.2 Tuples and records
      • 3.3 Arrays
      • 3.4 Concrete data types
      • 3.5 Objects
      • 3.6 Polymorphic variants
    • 4 Operations on values
      • 4.1 Kind tests
      • 4.2 Operations on integers
      • 4.3 Accessing blocks
      • 4.4 Allocating blocks
      • 4.5 Raising exceptions
    • 5 Living in harmony with the garbage collector
      • 5.1 Simple interface
      • 5.2 Low-level interface
      • 5.3 Pending actions and asynchronous exceptions
    • 6 A complete example
    • 7 Advanced topic: callbacks from C to OCaml
      • 7.1 Applying OCaml closures from C
      • 7.2 caml_result: resource cleanup on OCaml exceptions
      • 7.3 Obtaining or registering OCaml closures for use in C functions
      • 7.4 Registering OCaml exceptions for use in C functions
      • 7.5 Main program in C
      • 7.6 Embedding the OCaml code in the C code
    • 8 Advanced example with callbacks
    • 9 Advanced topic: custom blocks
      • 9.1 The struct custom_operations
      • 9.2 Allocating custom blocks
      • 9.3 Accessing custom blocks
      • 9.4 Writing custom serialization and deserialization functions
      • 9.5 Choosing identifiers
      • 9.6 Finalized blocks
    • 10 Advanced topic: Bigarrays and the OCaml-C interface
      • 10.1 Include file
      • 10.2 Accessing an OCaml bigarray from C or Fortran
      • 10.3 Wrapping a C or Fortran array as an OCaml Bigarray
    • 11 Advanced topic: cheaper C call
      • 11.1 Passing unboxed values
      • 11.2 Direct C call
      • 11.3 Example: calling C library functions without indirection
    • 12 Advanced topic: multithreading
      • 12.1 Registering threads created from C
      • 12.2 Parallel execution of long-running C code with systhreads
    • 13 Advanced topic: interfacing with Windows Unicode APIs
    • 14 Building mixed C/OCaml libraries: ocamlmklib
    • 15 Cautionary words: the internal runtime API
      • 15.1 Internal variables and CAML_INTERNALS
      • 15.2 OCaml version macros
  • Chapter 24 Optimisation with Flambda
    • 1 Overview
    • 2 Command-line flags
      • 2.1 Specification of optimisation parameters by round
    • 3 Inlining
      • 3.1 Classic inlining heuristic
      • 3.2 Overview of “Flambda” inlining heuristics
      • 3.3 Handling of specific language constructs
      • 3.4 Inlining reports
      • 3.5 Assessment of inlining benefit
      • 3.6 Control of speculation
    • 4 Specialisation
      • 4.1 Assessment of specialisation benefit
    • 5 Default settings of parameters
      • 5.1 Settings at -O2 optimisation level
      • 5.2 Settings at -O3 optimisation level
    • 6 Manual control of inlining and specialisation
    • 7 Simplification
    • 8 Other code motion transformations
      • 8.1 Lifting of constants
      • 8.2 Lifting of toplevel let bindings
    • 9 Unboxing transformations
      • 9.1 Unboxing of closure variables
      • 9.2 Unboxing of specialised arguments
      • 9.3 Unboxing of closures
    • 10 Removal of unused code and values
      • 10.1 Removal of redundant let expressions
      • 10.2 Removal of redundant program constructs
      • 10.3 Removal of unused arguments
      • 10.4 Removal of unused closure variables
    • 11 Other code transformations
      • 11.1 Transformation of non-escaping references into mutable variables
      • 11.2 Substitution of closure variables for specialised arguments
    • 12 Treatment of effects
    • 13 Compilation of statically-allocated modules
    • 14 Inhibition of optimisation
    • 15 Use of unsafe operations
    • 16 Glossary
  • Chapter 25 Fuzzing with afl-fuzz
    • 1 Overview
    • 2 Generating instrumentation
      • 2.1 Advanced options
    • 3 Example
  • Chapter 26 Runtime tracing with runtime events
    • 1 Overview
    • 2 Architecture
      • 2.1 Event sources
      • 2.2 Events transport
    • 3 Usage
      • 3.1 With OCaml APIs
      • 3.2 With tooling
    • 4 Custom events
      • 4.1 Overview
      • 4.2 Tracing custom events: an example
  • Chapter 27 The “Tail Modulo Constructor” program transformation
    • 1 Disambiguation
    • 2 Danger: getting out of tail-mod-cons
    • 3 Details on the transformation
    • 4 Current limitations
  • Chapter 28 Runtime detection of data races with ThreadSanitizer
    • 1 Overview and usage
    • 2 Performance implications
    • 3 False negatives and false positives
    • 4 Runtime options
    • 5 Guidelines for linking
    • 6 Changes in the delivery of signals
• Part IV The OCaml library
  • Chapter 29 The core library
    • 1 Built-in types and predefined exceptions
    • 2 Module Stdlib: the initially opened module
  • Chapter 30 The standard library
  • Chapter 31 The compiler front-end
  • Chapter 32 The unix library: Unix system calls
  • Chapter 33 The str library: regular expressions and string processing
  • Chapter 34 The runtime_events library
  • Chapter 35 The threads library
  • Chapter 36 The dynlink library: dynamic loading and linking of object files
  • Chapter 37 Recently removed or moved libraries (Graphics, Bigarray, Num, LablTk)
    • 1 The Graphics Library
    • 2 The Bigarray Library
    • 3 The Num Library
    • 4 The Labltk Library and OCamlBrowser
• Part V Indexes